Design for Learning in E-Learning: Making the Notion of "Quality" Concrete and Implementable

Design for Learning focuses on how to transform existing educational situations into desired situations where it is easier to achieve learning outcomes (Guislandi & Raffaguelli, 2015). The emphasis is on quality, and in doing so, the approach links the vision of how quality should be enacted in a program to the actual activities and procedures that are built into the learning program.

In the learning design, it is important to think of how the design of the course can affect ways of knowing, and also how to connect to improvements in practice.

Breaking Down "Quality" into Recognizable Elements

It is really all about breaking down quality into recognizable elements, and moving "quality" from an abstraction to something that can be recognized, measured, reviewed, and remediated (McNaught etal, 2012).

1. System: Make sure that the system used in learning is of high quality.  This means that it is necessary to review the learning goals and the potential users of a learning system (whether it be a learning management system, or a LMS-free approach) to assure that it can deliver what it needs to deliver.

2.  Experience:  Make sure that the learner / user experience is a positive one, and that it is friendly, not just for the learners, but also for the facilitators.

3.  Culture:  What are the institutional values? How and when are certain high-quality elements perceived?  What is the definition of quality?  How does it extend to a sense of respect for diversity, as well as efforts to build an authentic structure that can help learners and facilitators feel confident about their ability to achieve the mission of the organization and their goals as they relate to the institution.

4.  Flexible and Forward-Looking Vectors of Communication and Change:   Be willing to adapt existing structures to ones that are more flexible, and which accommodate changing technologies and locations. Ideally, learning organizations should be able to accommodate and even welcome individuals in all situations with a minimum of disruption. Further, the quality elements should extend to encouraging experimentation and innovation, with a high tolerance for failure (and success, which can bring about its own stresses and stressers).

University Degree Programs / Field Research Courses

Here's a concrete example. Let's say that we are a geology department in a state university, and we have a number of field courses. We've been intensely impacted by technology, not only in the way in which we communicate our findings, but also in the way in which field investigations are conducted.

We require all our graduate students to go out into the field and map outcrops and retrieve samples. However, our administration as well as our insurance providers have recently pulled the plug on the way that we were doing things in the past. They claim that there is not enough quality control in the design of the courses, so what the students bring back from the field are of dubious quality. Worse, they're considered dreadfully unsafe; only last month one student tumbled off a cliff and impaled herself on a cholla cactus. She was alone, and it was a minor miracle that she made it back alive. One might say it was only sheer luck that the escarpment was only 15 feet high, there was a ledge that partially broke her fall, and the cholla cactus plant was small and it broke apart upon impact. The weather was chilly and wet, so she was wearing pants and rain gear, which help minimize the impact of the cactus spines.

Details and luck notwithstanding, what happened to her was a clear indication that the department needs to go back and revisit Design for Learning and look at the four criteria:

1. System:  It's possible that the system itself is not giving people an opportunity to plan their research projects well. There may not be effective templates, and it may be important to customize the approach, given that each student's research project will be slightly different.

2.  Experience:  What is the user's experience? For the female student who fell down an escarpment and impaled herself on cholla cactus, it's less than ideal.  But it could have been worse.  Her experience in the field should not be confused with the learning design; the design should be developed so that she had a positive experience in planning and implementing her learning program.

3.  Culture: If the culture of the organization puts a high priority on eliminating all risk and all potential exposure to liability, then they may lose students. They will certainly lose innovative impulses, and many of their creative, inspired (and inspiring) thinkers will be drawn to different places, where they will potentially contribute transformative breakthroughs which could tangibly / substantially positively impact the institution itself and affect its persistence / viability.

4. Flexibility:  Communication could be improved. How about requiring digital inspections before going into the field and maintain an archive of photos of the sites (all of which are geotagged) and the gear.  Also, it would be possible to use low-cost satellite phones if there is no cell phone coverage. It's not always possible to work in teams, and so it's necessary to at least have a digital nanny.

Conclusions & Observations

Design for Learning articles are often cloaked in rather obtuse language which can be less than concrete. In order to really grasp the importance of the concept and the potential contribution to an organization, to learners, instructors, and a community, it's important to look at case studies. The concept of Design for Learning does, in fact, provide a powerful mechanism for operationalizing "quality" by breaking it into observable, measurable actions and by providing a platform for dissecting case studies with the idea of incorporating them in one's own learning programs.


REFERENCES


Ghislandi, Patrizia M. M.; Raffaghelli, Juliana E. Forward-oriented designing for learning as a means to achieve educational quality. British Journal of Educational Technology. (Mar2015)  Vol. 46 Issue 2, p280-299.

McNaught, Carmel, Paul Lam, and Kin Cheng. (2012)"Investigating Relationships Between Features Of Learning Designs And Student Learning Outcomes." Educational Technology Research & Development 60.2: 271-286. Professional Development Collection. Web. 11 June 2015.

Hed Kandi Sayulita Beach House: Travel-Tourism Economic Development Using Social Media

I love Hed Kandi’s chill and house mixes and eagerly look for them. They evoke a beach and surf vibe and even if I’m squeezed into an economy seat on a sold-out regional jet flight, I am immediately transported to gorgeous places and climates. 

For example, I imagine Sayulita, a bohemian coastal village in the Nayarit Riviera in Mexico close to Puerta Vallarta, famed for its surf and Stand Up Paddle Board (SUP)  competition in May.

In certain times of the year, Sayulita is a mellow place of pink sunsets and glassy waters.

However, according to blog posts and reviews, Sayulita was pure enchantment 30 years ago, but has been sullied by crowds and poor infrastructure, as well as a failure to enforce sanitation laws.

This is disappointing to me, and I wonder how many others are like me – they’d love to spend an extended amount of time in a beach community, and perhaps even invest in a house or a business.

Accelerating Private Infrastructure Investment for Economic Development

Perhaps the problem is that of a lack of private investment for infrastructure which is uniformly administered by a board that follows an approved development plan.

Personally, I think it would be a good idea to use templates already in place for development plans. For example, the “Pueblo Mágico” concept in Mexico has resulted in gorgeously maintained villages which are charming and clean. Examples that come to mind in the state of Jalisco are Tapalpa and Tequila.

It would be a good idea to share infrastructure improvements in order to encourage development via social media:
•    tweet new developments
•    post photos of prize winners on Instagram & share
•    use LinkedIn to connect owners of businesses / services
•    post videos of contests & the implementation of new infrastructure on YouTube
•    develop weekly shows to post on YouTube

While it might be tempting to try to shame people into not erecting fences that encroach on public roads, disregarding property lines, leaving piles of mangos and fallen branches to rot, and to letting their dogs run free in the streets and beaches, putting up ugly photos on the web is a very inadvisable strategy that will certainly have unintended negative results. It’s much better to encourage and envision positive change, and reward steps made in the right direction.

Social Media Collaborative Digital Inspections for Optimizing Field Safety

 A common problem with field courses is the fact that safety is often viewed as a checklist and there can be a certain level of complacency. Given the ever-changing nature of field conditions and also the fitness levels of the participants, it is very important to develop an approach to safety that heightens engagement and also becomes collaborative and participatory. The result would be an elevated awareness and an emphasis on a culture of safety.

By leading by example and by emphasizing collaboration and teamwork, the field culture can be one of enthusiastic, engaged cooperation, which results in a sustainable, ongoing example of transformational leadership. Ultimately, the individuals will be safer and healthier, and the organization will provide an increasing number of opportunities for innovation and positive change.

OVERALL GOALS AND OBJECTIVES:

The primary objective is to inculcate a collaborative, participatory approach to field safety that is ongoing and omnipresent. Further, it is structured around collaboration which helps reinforce constructivist learning.

This approach is also very motivating, particularly if some of the activities can be gamified and competition / rewards are incorporated. 

PRELIMINARY SETUP

* everyone has a phone / handheld / tablet
* take photos
* highlight safety checklist items to do via social media collaboration
* ask everyone to open a Flickr or other account where they can post (can include privacy settings so it is not public) their photos
* or, alternatively, create a collaboration space in a discussion board, wiki, or other place where people post links or actual photos. Make it shareable only to members of the team and the host organization leaders

OPERATIONAL PROCEDURES

*  Make sure that the field guide is digital

*  Have a safety checklist
    * Initial -- vehicle, equipment, supplies -- used for the group
    * Personal protective equipment
    * Each stop

* Collaborative activities
    * Each person takes photo of checklist item and posts it (can do individually or collaboratively)
    * Each person takes photos of their personal protective equipment / checklist supplies  / items
    * Instructor takes photo of each stop the day or week before in order to "ground truth" the location for a review of conditions

* Gamification
    * Give stars for people who complete the checklist effectively and thoroughly
    * Have a contest for safety / health insights – who can identify ways to make things safer and to assure optimal health

CONCLUSION

Incorporating a digital inspection and also a safety / health optimization set of activities can turn a task that is often looked upon as compliance-based drudgery to something that is fun and ultimately a part of an integrated solution that achieves a culture of safety and health.

The facilitator should incorporate emulatory leadership strategies, and should lead by example. Further, the goal should be transformative leadership, which can bring about a sustainable organizational change.

Hybrid / Blended Courses: Constantly Evolving for Optimal Effectiveness and Access

Blended learning can help overcome the limitations of face-to-face delivery. Blended learning can take many forms, and is easily adapted to specific needs and technical requirements. Incorporating elearning and mlearning (including synchronous and asynchronous), blended (often referred to as “hybrid”) courses can include face to face elements as well as a blend of different technologies and delivery modalities.

Types of Hybrid / Blended courses

Hybrid can incorporate a combination of F2F, elearning and mobile device-structured social media. 

Because needs are constantly evolving, and technology / access can be a moving target, the configurations of hybrid / blended delivery can be quite diverse. The can include:

•    Primarily F2F, with web enhancement

•    Primarily e-learning, with traditional LMS, with F2F facilitated discussion groups

•    Synchronous e-learning (webinars, etc.), with archived recordings, plus repositories with content, with learning “clusters” (small student groups that come together informally)

•    Conference with digital follow-up

•    Discussion-focused online, with readings / topic-structured forum, plus synchronous microblogging (tweets / chat)

•    Collaborative  project-focused online course with portfolio, plus synchronous microblogging (tweets / chat)

Blended learning encourages dynamic collaboration.

Best Approaches

The philosophy of learning in blended courses is learner-centered, with an emphasis on making sure that there is a great deal of learner engagement and collaboration. Most blended courses are most effective if they are problem or project based, with very clear outcomes that require the application of knowledge and skills.

•    Pull not push content
•    Problem or project-based focus
•    Emphasize tangible, measurable outcomes that require collaboration
•    Optimize engagement via collaboration

Materials for Maximum Effectiveness in Hybrid / Blended Courses

It is very easy to overwhelm learners with too many instructional materials, that can range from digital texts to videos / audios / graphics / presentations. It is a good idea to look at materials from the point of view of how they would be used in conjunction with the collaborations and outcomes.

Further, it’s a very good idea to keep in mind that the core philosophy of blended courses has to do with constructivism, which involves optimizing collaboration and cooperation. Further, with a problem-based approach, the materials can be arranged in order to facilitate the outcome.

•    Digital readings that encourage active reading via collaboration / comments
•    Building blocks
o    Skills
o    Concepts
•    Collaborative activities that result in a tangible product / outcome
•    Shared experience / stories
•    Scaffolding points consisting of ways to identify relevant and useful prior learning

Conclusion and Example

Here’s an example that help us bring the approach into focus.

Let’s say that we want to develop a plan for analyzing the lithium content in different salt lakes, ranging from Utah (Lake Bonneville) to Bolivia (Salar de Uyuni). We will develop teams and each will be tasked with finding the best possible possible processing approach.

We’ll divide into groups and there will be a clear outcome, which will be fairly easy to complete because it’s a template.

However, analyzing and organizing the information is not so easy. That’s where the teams come in. It’s also where the design needs to help the teams attack information overload and get the information that they need, and then to discuss / work / play with the information.

So, clearly it’s necessary to find out where the students are, what their backgrounds are, and what kinds of technologies are available to them.  Then, knowing something about their background will also help.

The hybrid approach will need to be flexible in order to build on the strengths of the group. Then, when the outcomes are drafted, it would be good for the other teams / team members to be able to see and review each others’ work.


REFERENCES

Gerbic, Philippa. (2011) Teaching using a blended approach - what does the literature tell us? Educational Media International. Sep2011, Vol. 48 Issue 3, p221-234.

Ghislandi, Patrizia M. M.; Raffaghelli, Juliana E. Forward-oriented designing for learning as a means to achieve educational quality. British Journal of Educational Technology. (Mar2015)  Vol. 46 Issue 2, p280-299.

Moeller, Stefan; Spitzer, Klaus; Spreckelsen, How to configure blended problem-based learning -- Results of a randomized trial. Cord. Medical Teacher. Aug2010, Vol. 32 Issue 8, pe328-e346.

McNaught, Carmel, Paul Lam, and Kin Cheng. (2012)"Investigating Relationships Between Features Of Learning Designs And Student Learning Outcomes." Educational Technology Research & Development 60.2: 271-286. Professional Development Collection. Web. 11 June 2015.

Evald Flisar, Slovenian Dragons, and a Reading at the Library of Congress

Slovenian author Evald Flisar will be giving a series of readings and talks, including one on June 23, in the U.S. Library of Congress.  The event starts at 12 noon at the European Division Reading Room, LJ-250, 2nd Floor, Thomas Jefferson Building.  Flisar will be responding to questions and will discuss the importance of literature in today's world.

Slovenia, the land of caves, castles, dragon bridges, mountains, and fascinating literature and culture will be in the spotlight in the weeks surrounding their day of Independence.

Evald Flisar, president of Slovenian PEN, whose works have been translated and performed in more than 40 languages, was recently featured in a special display at the Slovenian National Library.

 

Evald Flisar Retrospective in the Slovenian National Library. 

 For more information about Flisar's work published in English, please visit Texture Press (http://www.texturepress.org).

Ruben Dario Should Be In Every Survey / Anthology of Poetry

Rubén Darío’s (1867-1916) work spanned many years, and it contains very distinct themes. One of the most popular deals with the sense of the ineffable, the impossibility of explaining the human condition. In many ways, his work predates the sense of “thrownness” described by German philosopher Martin Heidegger.



In fact, Darío’s intensity has Romantic roots, although his prosody is firmly modernist and spare.  His willingness to explore the dual nature of the human spirit finds echoes in the work of the German Romanticists, specifically E.T.A. Hoffmann and Goethe, as well as the Russian, Feodor Doestoevsky.  From a philosophical standpoint, his work aligns quite well with the work of Schopenhauer and his work, “On Pessimism.”

To reduce Darío to a set of connections or potential affinities does not really do him justice. His verses are beautifully formed, and they contain a direct address to the reader which insists upon introspection and a willingness to feel deep emotions, particularly those of nostalgia and longing.

Four Melancholic Songs by Ruben Dario
http://cordite.org.au/translations/cooke-dario/

Works of Ruben Dario
http://www.classicspanishbooks.com/20th-cent-ruben-dario-work.html

Biography of Ruben Dario
http://www.poemhunter.com/ruben-dario/biography/

Poems by Ruben Dario
http://www.poemhunter.com/ruben-dario/

Guiding Questions:

Please read the poems by Ruben Dario and describe the way he envisions himself and his existential condition as it relates to perception, feelings, and the meaning of life?

What are some of the motifs / images that are repeated in Ruben Dario’s poetry?

What are some of the elements that you like in his poetry? How and why might his poetry “speak” to readers?

Cognitive Apprenticeship / Situated Learning in Life and Work Settings

Jenni's new approach for processing water from oil and gas wells was announced on the very same day that the Oklahoma Geological Survey stated that injecting produced water was causing the dramatic increase in damaging earthquakes in Oklahoma. So, her new approach was viewed as a potential solution to the problems. 

Because Jenni's approach was so practical, a large number of people were instantly interested, but they needed more information, knowledge, and understanding. As they educated themselves in the role of injected produced water, induced seismicity, and alternative processing approaches, they found they were very motivated - the hours flew by, and they retained what they were learning.

What was going on was a good example of situated learning, which focuses on making sure that the theoretical concepts are grounded in an authentic learning setting. Developed by Jean Lavé, the concept of situated learning is different from more formal learning approaches because it is unintentional, often unstructured, and focused toward the accomplishment of a concrete goal or objective.

Often referred to as cognitive apprenticeship, situated learning requires learners to use other learners and resources on an as-needed basis. As Lave and Wenger found in their seminal studies, the scope, depth, and breadth of knowledge are often very surprising.

If you are developing a learning program and you'd like to incorporate the power and flexibility (as well as the energy) of situated learning, it is important to put what is being learned within a specific context. It is also important to make sure that all the content and activities relate to learning objectives in a way that allows the learner to keep them in mind as they scramble around to obtain the knowledge and information they need.

Situated learning is a powerful strategy for several reasons. Here are a few

•    It is anchored in prior knowledge and real-world experience, and flows from the activities, context, and culture in which it is found.

•    A powerful example involves the application of new knowledge or techniques to case studies.

•    Situated learning contains true problem-solving power because it includes intrinsic motivation, and the learners are open to peripheral interesting and unexpected inflows / inputs as they try to achieve their learning objectives.

•    It is authentic and flexible, allows one to prioritize the instructional materials by what is needed most

•    Social learning takes place in a natural, fluid way as individuals naturally collaborate and share information / knowledge because they truly care about the outcome.

Some of the best learning takes place outside the classroom, and yet the strategies that make problem-based learning can be implemented in the classroom and online with great success. Situated learning is just one of them.

Susan Smith Nash, Ph.D.

REFERENCES
Lave, J. (1988). Cognition in Practice: Mind, mathematics, and culture in everyday life. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

Lave, J., & Wenger, E. (1990). Situated Learning: Legitimate Peripheral Participation. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

How to Make Social Media Work for You in Learning / Training Programs

Imagine a group coming together to plan a new pet adoption center. They're working together as a team, and this project has a lot of moving parts, which include everything from the financing, design, permits, publicity, health and safety protocols, to finding the key personnel to make sure it's a sustainable enterprise.  

The planning process is also a learning process, and it requires a clear set of goals / objectives, and a constantly evolving set of information and a sense of what is "real" in terms of the viability of the project.

We care about our bears! Photo from Ljubljana, Slovenia.

It's a perfect example of the process of constructivist learning in action, and in the past, communication and the flow of information were both fairly easily mappable and ascertainable.

However, with social media, all notions of simple and predictable information / knowledge flows goes out the window.  Social media can give rise to all sorts of side or private conversations, and it pulls in other people into the conversation in an ad hoc manner. Further, the random and unpredictable nature of information that flows in can be either helpful or destabilizing / distracting.

Knowing that the use of social media is a reality, how can constructivist learning approaches make sure that social media contributes to the endeavor, rather than making it go off the rails?

Constructivist learning, which involves a dynamic interchange of ideas, approaches, and information, where learners interact with each other to share and fine-tune their knowledge and skills, is a powerful approach in the classroom and in the workplace.

It is also effective in online learning, where discussions and collaborative portfolios give individuals the opportunity to share, self-assess, and adjust.

Social media accommodates different learning styles, and it allows people to collaborate constructively. Susan Smith Nash is your guide.

But, how do constructivist notions of learning fare in a world of social media? Here are a few questions for consideration:

•    What kinds of social media are group members using?

•    When do they use it to obtain more information and how do they share it?

•    When do they use social media for communication? With whom? For what purposes? 

•    Does the presence of fluid and potentially randomly gathered outside information call into question the authenticity or validity of the core materials that are in use?

•    Does the use of social media create subgroups and restrict the sharing of vital information? What is the nature of the "side conversations" if / when they emerge?  How can they be harnessed, rather than becoming divergent forces?

•    How can social media usage be unequal / uneven (asymmetrical) within the group? How can the highly adept users of social media share strategies with other team members?  

•    How might the asymmetrical use of social media cause problems in the "reality testing" that goes on in the shaping of knowledge in a constructivist model? 

•    What kinds of outside information are desirable?  Why?

•    When and how can outside information result in distractions? How can outside information be evaluated to see if it contributes to the achievement of learning objectives / project goals?

Many times in a group setting, it's easy for individuals to state that they're using social media, but it is quite rare for the group members to actually sit down and evaluate how / why / when they're using it, and how it contributes to (or detracts from) the achievement of goals. 

The dynamic and interactive nature of constructivist learning settings, essentially assures that there will be social media in the mix -- but the question is, to what end?  The key is to step back, assess the situation, and use social media in an intentional way.

Situated Learning in Practice: Integrated Conservation and Development Programs

 Countries and communities that have the good fortune to be near areas of biodiversity and beautiful beaches, mountains, rivers, fields, and forests often cite nature tourism as a key strategy for preserving the integrity of natural resources and alleviating poverty. In doing so, they integrate conservation and development programs, and try to avoid the pitfalls that are often associated with tourism, such as social disruption, the abandonment of cultural heritage in favor of low-wage jobs, the commodification of biodiversity, and social inequality.

Being successful in establishing sustainable Integrated Conservation and Development Programs (ICDPs) requires a clear training and education program which place the education clearly within a framework of practical applications.

The ICDPs can result in economic benefits to the community, but that is often insufficient to guarantee sustainability because of fairly inevitable disruptions to lifestyle, traditional ways of earning a living (farming as opposed to formal employment). Further, satisfaction may plummet because perceived social inequality and restrictions on former lifestyles (SilvaJulie, 2014).

Situated learning is critical in the development and implementation of ICDPs:

     •    Conservation involves preservation of ecosystems
          o    Identify elements of ecosystems
          o    Explain which elements are most vulnerable

     •    Dealing with unexpected consequences: reduced opportunities for agricultural production, restriction of activities at home
         o    Describe the changes to communities and shared resources that require restricted activities (no agricultural expansion, changed practices)
         o    Identify the new types of activities and the skills requirements
         o    Create a plan for developing local talent for jobs with responsibility
         o    Identifying potential areas of social disruption / loss of cultural authenticity

    •    Taking advantage of economic development resources
         o    Create collaborations between locals and renowned experts for developing project plans
         o    Construct systems for administering new programs
         o    Develop lists of available incentives (tax credits, infrastructure projects, corporate promotions)
         o    Identify human resources and the needs to be satisfied

Implementing the situated learning approach requires the following elements:

     •    Collaborations, both face-to-face and with virtual communities of interest (Akoumianakis, 2014)
     •    Wiki or portfolio development of goal-focused information, such as habitat analysis, botanical information, etc.
     •    Repositories of information for marketing/outreach as well as operations (Libord &  Hjalager, 2010)
     •    Enacted social formations (Akoumianakis, 2014); travel communities (Lonely Planet, etc.) and virtual business communities (Travelocity, etc.)
     •    Knowledge management for communities of  interest

Case Study: Sayulita, Nayarit, Mexico

Sayulita, Mexico, which is an economy driven primarily by tourism, is a perfect location for the implementation of an ICDP, which in turn could benefit from the application of situated learning.

Sayulita is a fishing and surfing town on the west coast of Mexico north of Puerto Vallarta in the state of Nayarit. It has been featured in a number of books about world-class surf sites, and has also become a destination point for Canadian and American tourists and retirees. It has a bohemian vibe, and as opposed to Puerto Vallarta or Nuevo Vallarta, Sayulita does not allow large developments.

As a result, the town consists of a small plaza and business area, narrow unpaved streets, steep hillsides with tropical foliage, and clusters of small houses, bungalows, and multi-family rentals. There are two main beaches: a larger one that has a number of docking areas for boats, and a small one that one must access by going through a cemetery, hence the name, Playa de los Muertos. On November 2, el Día de los Muertos, family members leave orange marigolds (cempasúchitles) on the above-ground tombs.

The goal of many property owners in Sayulita is to expand / develop the area, especially as funds pour into the “Nayarit Riviera” in Puerto Vallarta, Nuevo Vallarta, and Punta Mita. The challenge for the property owners in Sayulita is that many of them are small holders, and also may not be full-time residents. Some are retirees and want to try a second career, but have no idea how to get started.

Further, they are very interested in protecting their investments, and a few recent developments have caused many owners to worry. For example, there is insufficient parking in the town, which is exacerbated by the fact that many restaurants place few tables inside. Instead, they put tables on the sidewalks, and even into the street itself, where diners run the risk of being run over by an errant car. They also have to contend with eating a lot of dust, and being menaced by the hordes of mongrel dogs and escaped chickens that roam the streets, adding to both charm and public health concerns.

Another concern is the fact that the few roads that provide access to the beach are very narrow, and often clogged by SUVs parking on the side. Further, the beach on the side of the cemetery, the “Playa de los Muertos” has less parking than ever since three food stands have opened, literally between and in front of the tombs. A charming location runs the risk of becoming a rather crass and potentially unwholesome crush. The recent developments run the risk of degrading the environment as well as the cultural heritage and authenticity.  It also runs the risk of exacerbating social inequality, and stripping the Sayulita original inhabitants of their culture and traditional ways of earning a living (Falk, etal, 2012).

The challenge for the property owners involves the following:

     •    Developing a strategy for preserving the environment
     •    Creating an economic development program
     •    Design a plan that integrates property interests and economic development via nature tourism

In order to be effective, all the activities will require learning programs, all of which should be closely aligned with the strategic goals and mission of the stakeholders.

References

Akoumianakis, D. (2014) Ambient affiliates in virtual cross-organizational tourism alliances: A case study of collaborative new product development.Computers in Human Behavior, Volume 30, January 2014, Pages 773-786

Falk, J. H, Ballantyne, R, Packer, Pierre Benckendorff, P. (2012) Travel and Learning: A Neglected Tourism Research Area.  Annals of Tourism Research, Volume 39, Issue 2, April 2012, Pages 908-927

Libord, J., Hjalager, A. (2010) Changing Approaches Towards Open Education, Innovation and Research in Tourism, Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management, Volume 17, Issue 1, 2010, Pages 12-20

SilvaJulie A., Lila K. Khatiwada (2014) Transforming Conservation into Cash? Nature Tourism in Southern Africa. Africa Today, Vol. 61, No. 1, Special Issue: Narratives of the African Landscape: Perspectives on Sustainability (Fall 2014), pp. 17-45

Classic Motivation Theories Compared and Re-Evaluated

Research by cognitive psychologists has suggested that motivation is often based on fundamental human needs, and that all are critical in factors in everyday life, such as job satisfaction, effective reward systems, team performance, and goal persistence.

Audio file:  http://www.zenzebra.net/podcasts/motivation1-nash.mp3

Bullfighter & son. What motivates people? Each person is different. (photo taken in San Miguel El Alto, Jalisco, MX, September 2014)

 However, not every theory covers the same territory, and it's useful to take a look at some of the most influential theories and compare them, as well as relate them. The theories examined are the following:

•    Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs
•    Herzberg's Motivation / Hygiene (two-factor) Theory
•    McClelland's Need for Achievement Theory

Because motivation is so highly individualistic, and it can vary so dramatically between people, it is important to consider a wide range of explanations and mechanisms. The results are important not only for optimizing satisfaction (and performance) in the workplace, but also in developing a dynamic organization that emphasizes constant, continual, and outcome-focused learning and skills development. It then follows that there can be a predictive relationship in performance.

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs (1954) posits that there are five ascending levels of needs, and if a lower-level need is not met, then the individual will essentially stay "stuck" there and be unable to ascend to the highest levels (Ego and Self-Actualization).

1.    Physiological needs. Food, water, shelter, and sex are survival needs and all humans must possess them. If they do not, all their waking moments will be obsessed with obtaining them, which will preclude the ability to achieve higher order levels of existence.

2.    Safety needs:  Humans need to feel protected against danger, threats and deprivation. This applies not only to physical needs, but also job security.

3.    Social needs:  Humans need to give and receive love, friendship, and affection. They need to feel they are a part of an accepting group.  If the first two levels of needs are being satisfied, then an individual will start to be aware of a lack of friends or associates.

4.    Ego needs:  If the other needs are being met, humans will turn to their ego needs and will seek achievement, status, recognition from society and associates / peers.

5.    Self-actualization needs:  These are the highest levels of needs and they occur if the previous four levels are satisfied. Self-actualization relates to the individual's own quest to realize what he or she perceives as his or her potential.

Although it's true that one cannot really focus on self-actualization without meeting the lower-order needs, not everyone will ever be interested in the higher level needs. It really depends on their level of aspiration and attitudes / beliefs.

Herzberg's Motivation Hygiene Theory. 

According to Herzberg's findings, motivation to accomplish work is a factor of satisfiers and dissatisfiers.

•    Satisfiers include achievement, recognition, the work itself, advancement, growth, responsibility.

•    Dissatisfiers include company policy, supervision, working conditions, interpersonal relations, salary, status, job security, and personal life.

For Herzberg, an organization can do a great deal to improve the "hygiene" which is to say that "hygiene" refers to removing as many negative elements as possible. So, Herzberg devised a process:

1.    Identify the type of hygiene to use and eliminate toxic elements (often are extrinsic factors)
2.    Enhance the meaningfulness of the job itself, make people feel responsible for the outcomes, and give feedback (often are intrinsic factors)

McClelland's Need for Achievement Theory

According to McClelland's research, people are motivated in the workplace by a need to achieve and also to receive recognition for their work.

Important factors in the need to achieve include the ability to define what it means to achieve, and that achievement is meaningful, perceived, and recognized by people whose opinions are meaningful to the individual.

1.    Achievement involves personal responsibility (and thus, clear credit for work done)

2.    Successful and continuous achievers know how to set goals that are not too high, but which are achievable (and tend to be moderate). They also take "calculated risks" and thus their risk-taking behavior is carefully modulated

3.    It is important to give concrete feedback in order to reinforce the fact that the achievement has been realized, and also to improve processes in the future (to assure continuing achievement).

Relating the Theories

When one takes a look at the three main theories, it's clear that they involve many of the same concerns; namely, achievement and also the perception of how and when achievement is accomplished.

Maslow and Herzberg's theories work well together to discuss and explain the conditions that must be present in order to motivate individuals and also to set the stage for learning and performance.

Both Herzberg and McClelland include the need for achievement and they look at them as basically intrinsic motivators, which means that in order to motivate, efforts have to be expended that will create feedback loops as well as reinforcement and self-perpetuating dynamics that tie to achievement, recognition of achievement, and eagerness to achieve again (and thus repeat the positive experience).

References:

Herzberg, F. (1966).  Work and the Nature of Man. New York: Thomas Y. Crowell Co.

Maslow, A. H. (1954). Motivation and Personality. New York: Harper and Brothers,.

McClelland, D. C. and Johnson, E. W. (1984). Learning to Achieve. Glenview, IL: Scott, Forsman, & Co.

Pardee, R. L. (1990). Motivation Theories of Maslow, Herzberg, McGregor, and McClelland. ERIC

Blog post authored by: Susan Smith Nash, Ph.D.

Motivation requires a multi-pronged approach.

Learner Identity and Motivation: Connections to Aspiration

Learning can be a risky business, especially when it has to do with a learner’s sense of self and their identity.  For example, how might a person who is learning a language for the purpose of becoming part of a group comes to realize that the act of learning is modifying who and how she is?  Is the change in one’s identity a good thing? If so, how and why? What impact does it have on learner motivation?

Podcast:  http://www.zenzebra.net/podcasts/motivation3-nash.mp3

A good example is the case of learning a language. While learning a language may be for the purposes of assimilating in a society (or, in a broader sense, fitting into a group or workplace) it is important to keep in mind that assimilation should not go too far, and seek to efface or obliterate the identities of the learners. 

Learning a language requires changes in one's sense of self. Motivation to continue often involves the learner's aspirations, dreams, and ultimate life goals. Learning language in Jalisco.

Learning involves socialization processes, and the degree to which one can both maintain autonomy and feel a part of a group is an important influencer in student satisfaction and motivation. In other words, a balance must be maintained.

An over-emphasis on testing, assessment, and individual achievement (rather than group dynamics) can destroy motivation.

Individual autonomy can be effectively instilled by giving learners the ability to critique texts and instructional materials, have choices with respect to their topics of study, and choose ways in which they are assessed.

It is useful to incorporate aspirational elements in motivation, especially in learning a language, or a skill set / knowledge base that gains entrance to a group (especially a highly desirable group).

Reflective learner journals can be helpful, not only in developing meta-cognitive skills but also in the ways in which instructors can learn to tailor their instructional strategies in order to be more effective.

Conclusion

Perhaps the most surprising insight is that in order to encourage the mediation of identity that occurs when learning a language (whether a formal language or the informal “language” of a workplace or community of interest), it is useful to look at aspirational elements of the learner’s identity framework.

In other works, what’s the learner’s dream?  What is the learner striving to be or become?

By appealing to the learner’s dream identity, or aspirations, you as an educator or instructional designer, will make it easier for the learner to tolerate the ambiguity and/or frustration that he/ she may feel when learning a language (and hence tending to give up her own identity).

In order to increase a sense of autonomy (and comfort with the process), it is helpful to give the learner the ability to influence his / her own methods of interacting and being assessed.

References

Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (1985). Intrinsic motivation and self-determination in human behavior.  New York: NY: Plenum Press.

Lamb, M. (2011).  Future selves, motivation and autonomy in long-term EFL learning trajectories . in G. Murray, X. Gao, & T. Lamb (eds). Identity, Motivation, and Autonomy in Language Learning. (pp. 177-194). Bristol, UK: Multilingual Matters.

Lamb, T. E. (2011). Fragile identities: Exploring learner identity, learner autonomy and motivation through young learners' voices.  The Canadian Journal of Applied Linguistics, Special Issue. 14:2, 68-85.

The Dynamics of Self-Concept and Learning Performance

It is tempting to look at self-efficacy (Bandura, 1997) as the only reflector of an individual's belief about himself or herself in terms of whether or not he or she is likely to stay motivated and to achieve high learning performance.

Podcast: http://www.zenzebra.net/podcasts/motivation2-nash.mp3

However, there is another way to map the process of how one's beliefs about themselves frame and facilitate learning performance. That concept can be described by Core Self-Evaluation (CSE).

Definition of Core Self-Evaluation (CSE): "fundamental evaluations of one's self-worth, competence, and capabilities"  (Kim, etal, 2012)

Question: What is the relationship between one's CSE and one's ability to learn? How does CSE relate to one's ability to succeed?  Does a positive CSE translate to enhanced motivation and higher learning capacity?

Individuals with a high CSE can tend to consider themselves "confident, emotionally stable across different contexts, in control of their lives, and positive about their worth" (Judge, etal, 2003).

Oklahoma depends on oil and gas production and the entrepreneurial spirit that accompanies it. In order to be successful, entrepreneurs have historically had to possess confidence and a positive core self-evaluation.

Having a positive CSE is not enough, however, when predicting performance,

It requires an additional step or factor, namely the motivation to learn. Here are the four main factors that are in play as a person employs their core self evaluation(s) in order to perform.  The way in which each is most likely to contribute to success is briefly detailed:

o    Goal choice: should be self-set, and appropriate, achievable, and meaningful
o    Goal striving: persistent effort toward the goal reflects the belief that one is making progress toward a goal that makes sense
o    Self-efficacy:  the belief that one is able to achieve the goal is vital in maintaining focus and the willingness to work through uncertainty
o    Goal commitment: an ongoing and self-reinforcing set of conditions and self-reassurances that keep the learner engaged and working toward the goal

All dimensions should be taken into consideration in evaluating learning performance, and the process is dynamic.

Key findings:

•    Individuals with high levels of CSE tend to set more challenging goals, and tend to shuttle between the different factors (goal choice, goal striving, self-efficacy, and goal commitment) to use them as a dynamic process to reinforce progress toward the goal, with the result of higher learning efficacy.

•    Individuals with lower levels of positive CSE may experience more anxiety, and it makes the dynamic process less fluid; in these cases shuttling between the factors may require coaching and/or team work. In this case, leadership is helpful in matching the individual with lower levels of CSE with appropriate team members and/or mentors

•    Good leadership is important in the process. First, leaders can help identify people with highly positive Core Self Evaluations and they can encourage and reinforce the high CSE.  Second, leaders can facilitate the process of helping find team members and mentors to reinforce the dynamic process of shuttling between goal choice, goal striving, self-efficacy, and goal commitment.

References

Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. New York: Freeman.

Judge, T. A., Erez, A., Bono, J.E., & Thoereson, C. J. (2003). The core self-evaluation scale: Dvelopment of a measure. Personnel Psychology. 56, 303-331.

Kim, K., In-Sue, O., Chiaburu, D., & Brown, K. (2012). Does positive perception of oneself boost learning motivation and performance? International Journal of Selection and Assessment. 20:3. 257-71.

Why Sociocognitive Conflict Is Good: The Best Ways to Use Discussions and Social Media for Motivation and Engagement

Collaborative learning can be very motivating because it helps reinforce social needs (Maslow) and needs for affiliation (McClelland). However, there are challenges in developing collaborative discussions using online courses and/or social media, for several reasons.

Podcast: http://www.zenzebra.net/podcasts/motivation4-nash.mp3

Engagement is a complex concept, and for learners to participate in a sustained sense, it is necessary to satisfy several conditions:

•    Have a positive feeling about participating or performing

•    Be willing to take risks and invest one's cognitive efforts in thinking and learning

•    Respect other learners while actively participating

Some ways in which collaborative discussions in online courses and in social media could actually be counter-productive for motivation and engagement include the following:

1.    Bad discussion board prompts may not encourage working together

2.    Prompts are too narrow, and do not include the incorporation of personal experience, prior learning, and/or opinion

3.    Social media can be too ephemeral (Twitter), and tends toward synchronous communication, which may exclude learners who do not have connectivity at the same time

4.    Social media can be distracting if the media / prompts do not tie closely to the course outcomes and learning objectives

5.    Learners may have differing levels of competency in developing media (photos, videos, audio), which can be discouraging to those who are at either end of the spectrum (highly advanced, or newbie).

Try a new identity: conflict gives you a chance to think from multiple perspectives.

Effective strategies:

•    Implement distributed leadership: include learner-guided activities such as discussion forum activities or social media postings that encourage individuals to take a position and then listen to their other classmates in order to engage in a debate (positive sociocognitive conflict)

•    Encourage energizing, productive sociocognitive conflict by posting prompts that encourage diverse opinions and sharing of insights (Johnson & Johnson, 2009)
•    Tie the prompts and the activities to a specific activity, challenge, current event, or ongoing project (Paris & Turner, 1994)
•    Minimize frustration by building in positive feedback for risk-taking, and for modifying / mediating output to align with abilities and a negotiated final product / outcome

Conclusions

Perhaps one of the most interesting findings is that conflict should be sought, rather than avoided in order to heighten engagement and motivation.  Of course, this is not referring to destructive or self-concept-damaging conflict.

Instead, it refers to socio-cognitive conflict that encourages the sharing of ideas, and lively, engaged, and emotionally compelling posts.  Thus, the individuals find themselves caring about what they’re doing – emotions / affects are triggered – and they then take ownership in the position they’ve taken, and go to some length to find ways to post supporting information.

References

Graesser, A. C., & D'Mello, S. (2012). Emotions during the learning of difficult material. in B. Ross (Ed.), The Psychology of Learning and Motivation: Vol. 57 (pp. 183-225). New York: NY: Academic Press.

Johnson, D. W., & Johnson, R. T. (2009). Energizing learning: The instructional power of conflict. Educational Researcher, 38 (37-51).

Paris, S., & Turner, J. (1994) Situated motivation. in P. Pintrich, D. Brown, & C. Weinstein, Eds. Student Motivation, Cognition, and Learning: Essays in Honor of Wilbert J. McKeachie. (pp. 213-237). Hillsdale, NJ: Earlbaum.

Wu, X., Anderson, R. C., Kim, N.J., Miller, B. (2013) Enhancing motivation and engagement through collaborative discussions. Journal of Educational Psychology: 105: 3, 623-632.

The Best Possible Collaborations in the M-Learning Space

I've been doing quite a bit of thinking about the way in which new needs and technologies are impacting the way education and training are prepared, delivered, and administered. All the advantages of m-learning come to the forefront: on-demand, ubiquitous (esp with wifi), and practical. There are also new advantages as well, which have to do with the way in which multimedia and social networks make collaboration and the use of multiple types of content possible.

As a result, there are some significant changes in the way in which materials are developed and deployed, and there are also differences in expectations of the learners / users.

The high-definition, high production value end of the instructional materials spectrum. Materials for m-learning can also be collaborative and created by learners.

Changes in Development / Deployment: Because the technology changes quickly and because instructional materials emerge quickly, it's very important to have a quick-to-market platform which incorporates existing multimedia and resources.

Here are a few considerations:
    * The LMS will be a shell from which content is accessed
    *  It may be desirable to develop programs that do not use an LMS, but instead, utilize a bundle of products, such as Google materials
    *  Assessment can be done via a lite version of an LMS or via collaborative archiving (GDrive, Dropbox, etc.)
    *  Social media can be used for communicating with group members and making them aware of resources (Twitter, Instagram, Facebook), but not for confidential elements
    *  Instructional materials will be available in a "just in time" manner, and not necessarily developed months or years in advance
    *  Courses respond to changing needs (regulations, new technologies, new job opportunities) and so are often in flux

Implications for Credit Evaluation:
    * It may be necessary to evaluate the *type* of materials, and be comfortable with the fact that a textbook will not be the only materials
    *  The educational institution would simply provide representative samples

Increased Focus on Collaboration:  Collaboration is important and with new technologies students have more flexibility than ever to learn from and with each other.  This changes the nature of tasks and assignments, and also the way in with learning takes place.

Here are a few considerations:
    * Increased number of games and gamification that should be situated and purposeful (ties to learning objectives) not random or simply amusing
    * More interactive uses of shared texts, images, maps, and videos that are produced by students and posted in social media (youtube, instagram, etc.)
    * More need for informal communication done quite quickly (via Twitter, Google Hangouts, WhatApp, Skype, FaceTime, etc.)
    *  May not be possible to evaluate the nature of the collaborative processes -- but important to provide guidelines
    *  Will be important to have examples of products / projects to be completed by students
    *  Rubrics may seem a bit subjective, and so the process itself should be important and students need to reflect on their learning journey, and focus on meta-cognition
    *  Experiential learning / prior knowledge are easily incorporated in collaborations

Implications for Credit Evaluation:
    *  Rubrics should take into consideration the process as well as the final product
    *  Incorporate meta-cognitive strategies for instruction and evaluation
    *  Games / gamification should focus on situated learning that can build on prior knowledge

Changes in Assessment / Evaluation:  M-Learning makes assessment via gamification, interactive quizzes, and collaboration very convenient.

Here are some considerations:
    * Gamification should be easy to implement and change in order to maintain maximum situatedness
    * Portfolios can include multimedia, with clear tie-ins to learning objectives
    *  Rubrics need to be clear and also to incorporate a learning journal to reflect on metacognition
    *  The process of collaboration itself should be a part of the assessment, and can be done by means of a learning journal
    *  Interactive quizzes should be of the appropriate difficulty
    *  Quizzes should work easily on all devices
    *  Collaborative efforts (portfolios, projects, etc.) need to be clearly situated in the learning setting / goals, and appropriate scaffolding needs to have been developed
    *  Collaborative efforts need to clearly tie to learning objectives
    *  Allow students to build on prior knowledge and experience when possible, and form collaborations so that they can incorporate experiential learning

Implications for credit evaluation:
    *  Need to be clearly tied to learning objectives
    *  Higher levels of Bloom's taxonomy often represented in collaborations
    *  Interactive quizzes can be effective for the lower level Bloom's taxonomy elements (identification, etc.)
    * Institutions need to provide a backup / contingency assessments in case of massive technology fail   

Final Thoughts
It is hard to predict the future, except to know that there will be changes, and the demand for new information, skills, and education will continue to be strong. There seems to be an increasing sense of urgency, and those institutions that are nimble and can provide knowledge transfer and skills building in a quick, effective, easy-to-implement and easy-to-complete manner will be the most successful of education / training providers. Entrepreneurship will always be rewarded, especially for those entrepreneurs are particularly adept at recognizing, assessing, and taking advantage of opportunities.

Susan Smith Nash eating fresh coconut, thinking about training and education that includes collaboration and can be accessed via smartphone, laptop, tablet, or regular computer, and which does not require much bandwidth.